Financial Planning Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10250 words

Financial Planning - Coursework Example I was able to base my financial plan on this. Also I learnt to incorporate various influential factors into my financial plan. On the overall, the chapter provides a framework for financial planning. The first chapter provides the method to derive the goal and the path to achieve the goal. This chapter provides the means of achieving such goal. In other words, it provides us with information on some of the basic tools required such as maintenance of financial records, computation of net worth, preparation of cash flow statement, using financial ratios, and understanding time value of money. The chapter lists out the benefits and various aspects of organizing the documents and records. The issues to be thought about are how long to save a document and how to save it. The purpose of safekeeping devices like safe deposit box or lock box should be understood before investing in one of them. The two financial statements important for an individual are Balance Sheet and Cash Flow Statement. The Balance Sheet reveals the financial position of the individual and the Cash Flow Statement summarizes the cash inflows and outflows. Worksheets 1 and 7 provide the template for preparation of these two statements. Financial ratios such as the debt ratio and the savings ratio give a precise idea of your achievement. It informs you if your debts are well within the limits of the assets you own and the savings ratio keep your savings on track. Time Value of Money is essential to assess one's financial success. A common man thinks that he has earned well on his investment without considering when he is going to get the returns. Understanding the concept of time value of money becomes essential to know if the returns to be earned over a period of time are actually sufficient. Chapter 3: This chapter deals with identifying one's short term and long term financial goals, evaluating one's own abilities and interest in establishing a career plan, understanding and implementing a household budget, and monitoring and controlling expenses. The chapter first provides the precise steps required to establish a set of goals. It is important to list the goals on paper rather than just think about it. The step regarding breaking bigger goals into smaller goals was a good tip. While thinking in the long run, everything looks very vague, whereas in the short run, we are able to think precisely. In the short run, we will be able to execute our long term plan. Career planning, though not directly linked to financial planning, is the very source of the finance that we need to plan for. The chapter gives a detailed explanation on career planning. Through the chapter I was able to learn the real value of my career, which is the present value of it and not just what I am going to earn in the near future. There are also useful websites that give

Postcolonialism †An Historical Introduction Essay Example for Free

Postcolonialism – An Historical Introduction Essay In these two chapters from the book ‘Postcolonialism – An Historical Introduction, Robert J.C. Young provides the reader with an in depth understanding of colonal and postcolonial history, as well as well pondered definitions of important terms within the academic field of postcolonial studies. To illustrate the cruel and inhumane reality of the imperialistic powers, Young uses the case of Sir Roger Casement, a former member of the British Consular Service who was asked by the British Government in 1910 to investigate allegations of atrocities committed against the indigenous of the Amazon by a British company extracting rubber from the jungle. Casement verified, against the British governments expectations the atrocities, which six years later ironically led to his execution, sentenced by the British government on a charge of High Treason. The case of Casement shows us how the imperialistic powers ruled with devastating inhumanity, not only towards the indigenous but also towards anyone whom opposed the colonialising forces. The author goes on describing the history of 20th century imperialism. He puts forward the shocking fact that by the time of the first World War, imperial powers occupied, or controlled, nine-tenths of the globes surface territory, where of Britain governed one-fifth of the area of the world and a quarter of its population. Later in this chapter Young argues that Britain in fact actually was the first colony of the British empire, as here a minority elite the ruling upper class, controlled Britain both before and well into the nation’ further imperialistic era. With no space left for territorial expansion the leading forces of Europe turned inwards in a last attempt to grow. He points to Aimà © Cà ©saire who was the first to note that fascism was a form of colonialism brought home to Europe. The outcome of the 2nd World War led to the defeated nations loss of colonies around the globe. After the Indian independence in 1947 began a further process of European decolonization that is now largely complete. The author however argues that the list of direct or indirect colonized areas, are still surprisingly long. He also points to the many territories today, which is controlled by external forces not coming from within the European nations. Young states that the colonial history, which began as early as 500  years ago, has determined the configurations and power structures of the present. When we speak about colonialism the term Third World is widely used, Young however supports the criticism of this identification, as the word â€Å"third† in it self carries a negative aura in a hierarchical relation to the first and second. To describe the three southern continents of Latin America, Africa and Asia, young therefore uses the more political correct term tricontinetal and even suggests that postcolonialism should be called tricontinentalism. Postcolonial critique is united by a common political and moral consensus towards the history and legacy towards colonialism. It presupposes that the history of European expansion and the occupation of most of the global landmass between late 15th century and mid 20th century mark a process that was both specific and problematic. Western expansion was carried out with a moral justification that it was of benefit for all those nations, which it impacted. However apologists continue to lean upon this argument, it is impossible to deny the extraordinary suffering and destructive impact on indigenous people the colonisation of the world brought with it. The assumption of postcolonial studies is that many of the wrongs, if not crimes, against humanity are a product of the economic dominance of the north over the south. In this way, Marxist theory became the most important framework in anticolonial thinking, where from postcolonial studies finds its birth. Postcolonial critique is a form of activist writing that looks back to the political commitment of the anti-colonial liberation movements. In an attempt to define Postcolonial critique, we can say that it focuses on forces of oppression and coercive domination that operate in the contemporary world: the politics of anti-colonialism and neo-colonialism, race, gender, nationalism, class and ethnicities define its terrain. Its object, as defined by Cabral(1969), is the pursuit of liberation after achievement of political independence. It constitutes of a directed intellectual production that seeks to synthesize different kinds of work towards the realisation of common goals that include the creation of equal access to material, natural, social and technological resources, the contestation of forms of domination – economic, cultural, religious, ethnic, gendered, and the articulation and assertion of collective forms of political and cultural identity. The Author gives the reader his definitions of the terms: postcolonial, postcolonialism and  postcoloniality. He defines ‘postcolonial’ as coming after colonialism and imperialism, in their original meaning of direct-rule domination, but still positioned within imperialism in its later sense of the global system of hegemonic economic power. The postcolonial is a concept that marks the historical facts of decolonization but also the realities of nations and peoples emerging into new imperialistic context of economic and sometimes political domination. The term ‘postcoloniaity’ by contrast puts the emphasis on the economic, material and cultural conditions that determine the global system in which the postcolonial nation is required to operate, a system heavily weighted towards the interests of international capital and the leading nations of the world. ‘Postcolonialism’, which the author prefers to call ‘tricontinentalism’, names a theoretical and political position, which embodies an active concept of intervention. Unlike the words ‘colonialism’, ‘imperialism’ and ‘neocolonialism’ which adopts only critical relation to oppressive regimes and practices that they represent, postcolonialism is both contestatory and committed towards political ideals of a transnational social justice. It attacks the status quo of hegemonic economic imperialism, and the history of colonialism and imperialism, but also signals an activist engagement with positive political positions and new forms of political identity in the same way as Marxism or feminism.

Benefits of ICT in Education and Classroom Management

Benefits of ICT in Education and Classroom Management ICT has so many advantages in the learning and teaching process. Classroom management is one of them that gained benefits from ICT. According to experienced teachers who use ICT in their classrooms that ICT may make the classroom controlling more effortless because ICT provides materials that make the class more interesting and easy to control (Cox and Webb, 2004). The existence of several sorts of ICT tools gives the class other support of learning especially in terms of visual and auditory learning. Thus the definition of classroom management Content management occurs when teachers manage space, materials, equipment, the movement of people, and lessons that are part of a curriculum or program of studies (Froyen Iverson, 1999, p. 128). This managing will lead to organizing students behavior. Jacob Kounin (1970) has vital studies about effective classroom management, which obtained to systematic results in classroom management techniques. Also, he found critical dimensions of effective class control containing the following issues: withitness: teachers know what each pupil is doing; they have eyes in the back of their heads so are able to pay attention to several things at the same time; Letting pupils know what behavior is expected of them at any given point in time; Smoothness: teachers are able to guide pupil behavior verbally or non- verbally without having to interrupt teaching; Maintaining group focus and interest. Leask and Pachler(2005:44) ICT is beneficial for teachers too, to discipline students deportments in the class. In withitness teachers never are busy with other things in the class while answering a question or other activities (Leask and Pachler, 2005). They should pay their attention to students behaviour even they observe them out of the corner of their eye, it will be good. In addition, students know what they are going to do next time. Finally, in smoothness teachers use efficient techniques that guide students in a way, which does not lead to a noisy atmosphere in the class, but without interrupting teaching process. ICT and Motivation: The British educational communications and technology agency (Becta, 2003) has a research about ICT and motivation, which reports that regular use of ICT across various curriculum subjects, may have a useful motivational impact on students learning (cited in Cox, 1997). It is clear that students stand more time in front of their tasks by using ICT like computer than other methods such as: classic method, which was manual, which is manual. ICT may solve discipline problems and decrease them. Moreover, students who used ICT for educational reasons in school feel more successful were more motivated to learn and have raised self-confidence and self-esteem (cited in Software and information industry association 2000). For example, while writing a paragraph by hand there is no grammar check to correct mistakes, but while ICT programs such as Microsoft Office word, which will detect most of the spelling and grammar mistakes. This process will encourage and motivate students certainly. Leask and Pachler, 2005 refer that the impaCT2 project evaluated the motivation of students through 15 case studies in their books. Researchers found that ICT not only encourages students to become more concentrated on the task. ICT also was seen by some teachers to improve both the competency and cognitive functioning (Cited in Comber et al., 2002, p. 9). Effective learning and teaching with ICT: In the late of 20th century and with the beginning of 21st century, ICT has played roles from simple to vital roles especially in developed countrys school. Learning and teaching process become more effective by using ICT. The use of ICT has developed in different ways to meet the needs of learners in different curricular areas. The use of ICT can: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ help learners be creative; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ be a useful aid to problem solving; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ provide ready access to a world of knowledge and research; and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ improve the quality of presentation. (2004, p. 7) ICT assisted students to be more creative in their learning process and it is a beneficial support for problem solving by using different ICT facilities such as: software programs, Internet, and printer. Today, learners have thousands of resources by using ICT in condition while sitting in their home not by searching for knowledge in libraries. Presentations became visual and auditory for students in addition to using software programs like power point. However, all these factors need effective teachers and managements or administrators to apply and achieve these effective benefits on students. The educational effectiveness of ICTs depends on how they are used and for what purpose. And like any other educational tool or mode of educational delivery, ICTs do not work for everyone, everywhere in the same way. (Tinio(2002), p. 19). The useful use of ICT in educational and pedagogical fields changes from person to person and from place to place. It bases on how they are practiced and for which reason. Undoubtedly, some educators use technology in particular computer and the Internet more efficiently than others. They know very well how they use it and when or where and for which occasion. Hence, teaching students the effective use of ICT especially in enhancing access and raising quality is another reason to promote students performance by using ICT and gaining more. The Barriers or Obstacles to the development and integration of ICT in education In the twentieth century schools encounter a number of difficulties including integration of information and communication technologies into the teaching and learning, education curriculum and change in methods in pursuit of developing learner lifelong learning skills (Sabaliauskas and Pukelis, p. 1). Undoubtedly, this is a complex process to change the system of learning and teaching from a traditional method to ICT method. Some people like (Schoepp, 2005) called difficulties as barriers. A barrier is defined as any condition that makes it difficult to make progress or to achieve an objective (Schoepp, 2005, p. 2). There are many barriers or difficulties that stand up in front of the development of ICT in education. Teacher-level barriers are lack of teacher confidence, competence and resistance to change negative attitudes. Also, there are school-level barriers, which are lack of time, lack of effective training, lack of accessibility, and lack of technical support (Bingimlas, 2009, p. 237- 241) Disadvantages of ICT Obviously, there are several kinds of drawbacks of ICT in the classroom or outside classroom. The costs of equipments are so expensive that prevent more schools to purchase. Sometimes, students engage with ICT tools for other purposes. Also, ICT is not safe usually for saving data and information because the potential errors may occur in the Windows program or other software programs and hacking by others. The following disadvantages give a list of objectives that staff and facilitators may be required to deal with should problems occur throughout using the ICT equipment. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Cost à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Distractions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reliability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Damage à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Safety à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Hacking (Anon, 2008, http://www.newman.ac.uk/Students_websites/~s.r.i.whitton/Advantages%20%20disadvantages.htm) Integrating ICT throughout the curriculum Jhurree (2005) states that the educational and pedagogical mend happen throughout the world to promote educational level. The integration of ICT in education system is one of them. The effective integration of ICT into classroom needs a systematic plan and scheme. Also, it depends on the policy makers how well understand the dynamics of integrating of ICT. Yet, ICT has been a complex issue because it will change the education completely. The difference that ICT will make in education is conditioned by what education wants to realize with ICT in the context of its needs and strategic ends. The educators must have developed the practice. It begins by good planning that provides the real state of the learners based on globally accepted curricular standards. The value of the ICT tools to make a difference is dependent on the educators identification of the instructional outcomes, methods and materials that ICT can bring efficiently and effectively deliver for the teachers and the learners (Macasio, J. (2008), http://aralaneteacher.ning.com/forum/topics/integrating-ict-in-teaching) Levine (1998) emphasises that the significance of planning, which is based on serious school needs then to be achievable and realistic. The scheme or policy should be practical to solve or change the school situation and to improve learning environments that will be effective. To attain objectives that have not been attained efficiently otherwise: expanding access, promoting equality, improving the internal efficiency of educational systems, enhancing the quality of education, and preparing new and old generations for a technology-driven market place (Haddad and Jurich, 2002, p. 47). The integrating ICT into education offers many useful factors such as: an evolved learning environment for learners by giving motivation that make them to work with instruction interestingly and efficiently. ICT has the capability for making instruction easier, more challenging and motivating for teachers. Nowadays, it is possible to contact with people throughout the world by using ICT especially comput er and the Internet. Teachers play a crucial professional role in ensuring that the integration of ICT into pedagogies is educationally sound. They evaluate the appropriateness and effectiveness of available technologies, deciding when and how to use them with their students.(MCEETYA (2005), p. 4). Teachers integrating ICT into their education need suitable learning activities and facilities to: motivate, engage, and personalize learning. Also, developing ICT literacy establishes communities of learning. ICT and assessment Previously, teachers were assessing their students in different methods such as: exam, quiz, writing essay, assignments, and oral exams, but all these methods were inside the class. Nowadays, information communication technology has changed the situation by using computer and the Internet but it is in the beginning of the loop. Students can send their assignment to their teacher by e-mail or exams and also (open-book; structured; timed). Participation in online discussions Publication of student work /presentations Experiential activities, such as role-play Debates Reviews Journals and reflection (Anon, http://learnline.cdu.edu.au/t4l/elearning/onlineassessment.html#options) These are all methods that give students an opportunity to access online and share their ideas and requirements? As can be seen, assessment opportunities making use of the web are still rather similar to non-computerized methods and often only use computer communication to submit or comment on students work in traditional ways. Where computer testing per se is used it often comprises short answers and multiple- choice questions Leask and Pachler(2005:136)

Resurrection and Rebirth in A Tale of Two Cities Essay -- essays resea

A Tale of Two Cities By Charles Dickens The idea of resurrection and rebirth pervades in this novel. How does Dickens use this theme? Do these themes of resurrection and self sacrifice and the setting of the French Revolution have anything to do with one another? Why is this the time and place of the novel? Brief Historical Background The novel, A Tale of Two Cities, takes place during the onset of the French Revolution, which shook the Western world with its violence and new ideas on freedom and the aristocracy. It was a period of major political and social change in the political history of both France and Europe during which the French governmental structure took on the Enlightenment’s ideals democracy, citizenship, and inalienable rights. These changes were accompanied by violent turmoil, which horrified most of the world, including mass executions and repression during what we now know as the Reign of Terror, and warfare involving every other major European power, particularly England. The French Revolution is considered to have begun around 1789 and ended around 1799. However, the repercussions of such a change carried over in France for the next 75 years. During that time, France experienced much political turmoil, experiencing different forms of governance including a republic, a dictatorship, a constitutional monarchy and an empire. Brief Author Background and Development of Novel Charles Dickens was born in Portsmouth, England in 1812. He grew up in a poor family as one of eight children. His troublesome childhood proved to be the inspiration behind such stories as Great Expectations, Oliver Twist, and David Copperfield. Dickens’s writing is characterized by social criticism of the times and is often sympathe... ...ich, although on a superficial level, is nothing like the plight of France. However, with a deeper reading, the two are remarkably similar. Carton was a man plagued by feelings of worthlessness and inadequacy. His feelings were momentarily allayed when he fell in love with Lucie Manette, as she made him feel that his life wasn’t entirely worthless. This was the beginning of Carton’s personal journey to make his life something he valued. His previously stoic and pessimistic character was showed in a more human light, and his character continued to make progress in revealing the true nature of Carton. His journey ended with his sacrifice of his life for the lives of the couple, and it affirmed his worth has a person, while reassuring him of the value of his life and deed, comparing what he did greater and more superior than anything that he has ever known in his life. Resurrection and Rebirth in A Tale of Two Cities Essay -- essays resea A Tale of Two Cities By Charles Dickens The idea of resurrection and rebirth pervades in this novel. How does Dickens use this theme? Do these themes of resurrection and self sacrifice and the setting of the French Revolution have anything to do with one another? Why is this the time and place of the novel? Brief Historical Background The novel, A Tale of Two Cities, takes place during the onset of the French Revolution, which shook the Western world with its violence and new ideas on freedom and the aristocracy. It was a period of major political and social change in the political history of both France and Europe during which the French governmental structure took on the Enlightenment’s ideals democracy, citizenship, and inalienable rights. These changes were accompanied by violent turmoil, which horrified most of the world, including mass executions and repression during what we now know as the Reign of Terror, and warfare involving every other major European power, particularly England. The French Revolution is considered to have begun around 1789 and ended around 1799. However, the repercussions of such a change carried over in France for the next 75 years. During that time, France experienced much political turmoil, experiencing different forms of governance including a republic, a dictatorship, a constitutional monarchy and an empire. Brief Author Background and Development of Novel Charles Dickens was born in Portsmouth, England in 1812. He grew up in a poor family as one of eight children. His troublesome childhood proved to be the inspiration behind such stories as Great Expectations, Oliver Twist, and David Copperfield. Dickens’s writing is characterized by social criticism of the times and is often sympathe... ...ich, although on a superficial level, is nothing like the plight of France. However, with a deeper reading, the two are remarkably similar. Carton was a man plagued by feelings of worthlessness and inadequacy. His feelings were momentarily allayed when he fell in love with Lucie Manette, as she made him feel that his life wasn’t entirely worthless. This was the beginning of Carton’s personal journey to make his life something he valued. His previously stoic and pessimistic character was showed in a more human light, and his character continued to make progress in revealing the true nature of Carton. His journey ended with his sacrifice of his life for the lives of the couple, and it affirmed his worth has a person, while reassuring him of the value of his life and deed, comparing what he did greater and more superior than anything that he has ever known in his life.

Marriage and Dowry Essay

Woman – a daughter, a sister, a wife and a grandmother, throughout her life she dreams of having a wonderful life, a life to see to it that her marks in the school will make her parents happy, a life to see to it that her husband stays healthy, a life to see to it that her children study for their exams and a life to die seeing others happy. She cares for others, more than herself, then why we see her so much vulnerable in every moment of her life. So many issues to talk about women, rape being the most popular issue on women in the present time, almost all the women, in India, are vulnerable to this offence. But just like rape, the dowry system has affected the women psychologically, physically and emotionally. The dowry system kills her like a slow poison. The custom of dowry, in India, has spread through the hierarchy of social stratification. Several feminists suggest that the practice was initially adopted by the upper castes, then over a period of time it has been passed down into lower castes, and eventually reaches the untouchables, the outcasts. As the sociological studies suggests, often lower groups intend to copy there dominant group in there society. India ranks 136, in Human Development Index, among 187 counties around the world. This show, the people in India are in very bad condition and more than half of the population lives in poverty. The reason for poverty in India, if we look historically, it is because of the caste system, which restricted half of the population, in India, to develop, as even in present time 66% of Dalits are poor, and if we look in present time, education has deprived the poor from getting a better standards of living. It is these poorer sections as well as the middle class of our country who, not being educated and having good standard of living are still governed by old customs and traditions and continue to practise the dowry system, were in the name of gifting the groom the bride’s family is put into debt. But even in many rich families too, this system is being followed, even though they are well educated. The sums of cash and goods involved, as dowry, are often so large that the payment can lead to vicious cycle of debt in the bridal family. This has a very bad effect on the lives of unmarried women who are considered as economic liabilities by their parents, this leads to preference of boy over girl, leading to female infanticide and among the married women; they are physically and mentally harmed by their husbands and his family members, if promised dowry are not forthcoming. Modernization in India has became a barrier to many customs to be continued, like the caste system, the child marriage etc. but modernization has also lead to increase in practise of certain customs which were restricted to certain communities, as mentioned above. When we see caste, dowry and modernization, they are all inter linked with each other. With modernization, individual is not restricted to do his caste occupation and has chances to have good standard of living. Since new income and earning opportunities, brought about by modernization, are predominantly filled by men, there price tag of dowry increased. After analysing the historical developments of dowry system among the people in India, who are governed under Hindu law, now let us look at the Muslims, who are the 2nd largest population in India. Despite the fact that Islam’s beauty lies in simplicity and it recommends simple marriage, some transgressions such as dowry have crept into Muslim society in a wide range. When we look through Quran, we come across â€Å"Mahr†. According to â€Å"mahr† it is a mandatory payment, in the form of money or possessions paid by the groom, or by groom’s father, to the bride at the time of marriage that legally becomes bride’s property. But as time has passed by, Muslims have changed their character and are following their Hindu counterparts in demanding and offering dowry both, in heavy cash and kind. The competition among the rich and well-to-do section of the Muslim community to reserve a good match for their daughters for whatever the demand is, has increased. Education has hardly has any influence on the minds of the people in respect of dowry. On the contrary, a highly educated man expects a higher amount of dowry, just as it happens among the Hindus. The violence committed on women, for dowry, has increased in recent times. If we observe properly, as to why this dowry violence takes place, we can see a broader picture. The reason for dowry is mainly because the women are seen as less productive than man, concept of dowry itself shows that one’s gender determines one’s worth. The roots of this deficiency can be seen were even a bride, who may be well educated and earning than her husband, will still have to pay the dowry price, just like the other bride who is not educated and not earning. And in some instances too, were even if demands for dowry were to be satisfied fully, young women would continue to face torture and harassment in their in-laws homes because of women’s custom-sanctioned-inferiority. Dowry deaths are example of patriarchal authority. In some cases, the patriarchal authority expresses itself by murdering the young women by burning with kerosene (most frequent in urban areas) or drowning (common in rural areas). Other methods employed to murder include poisoning and physical battery. These facts and historical development shows that it is because of the disrespect and uncultured behaviour that we show towards women, has lead to female infanticide, uneducated girls, sexual harassment, dowry system, heavy debt in bride’s family and domestic violence. Let us all respect women, and treat them has equals, because only this solution, will lead to abolishment of many social evils against women.

The Evolution of American Isolationism

The Evolution of American Isolationism â€Å"Isolationism† is a government policy or doctrine of taking no role in the affairs of other nations. A government’s policy of isolationism, which that government may or may not officially acknowledge, is characterized by a reluctance or refusal to enter into treaties, alliances, trade commitments, or other international agreements. Supporters of isolationism, known as â€Å"isolationists,† argue that it allows the nation to devote all of its resources and efforts to its own advancement by remaining at peace and avoiding binding responsibilities to other nations. American Isolationism While it has been practiced to some degree in U.S. foreign policy since before the War for Independence, isolationism in the United States has never been about a total avoidance of the rest of the world. Only a handful of American isolationists advocated the complete removal of the nation from the world stage. Instead, most American isolationists have pushed for the avoidance of the nation’s involvement in what Thomas Jefferson called â€Å"entangling alliances.† Instead, U.S. isolationists have held that America could and should use its wide-ranging influence and economic strength to encourage the ideals of freedom and democracy in other nations by means of negotiation rather than warfare. Isolationism refers to Americas longstanding reluctance to become involved in European alliances and wars. Isolationists held the view that Americas perspective on the world was different from that of European societies and that America could advance the cause of freedom and democracy by means other than war. American Isolationism Born in the Colonial Period Isolationist feelings in America dates back to the colonial period. The last thing many American colonists wanted was any continued involvement with the European governments that had denied them religious and economic freedom and kept them enmeshed in wars. Indeed, they took comfort in the fact that they were now effectively â€Å"isolated† from Europe by the vastness of the Atlantic Ocean. Despite an eventual alliance with France during the War for Independence, the basis of American isolationism can is found in Thomas Paine’s famed paper Common Sense, published in 1776. Paine’s impassioned arguments against foreign alliances drove the delegates to the Continental Congress to oppose the alliance with France until it became obvious that the revolution would be lost without it.   Twenty years and an independent nation later, President George Washington memorably spelled out the intent of American isolationism in his Farewell Address: â€Å"The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection as possible. Europe has a set of primary interests, which to us have none, or a very remote relation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies the causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities.† Washington’s opinions of isolationism were widely accepted. As a result of his Neutrality Proclamation of 1793, the U.S. dissolved its alliance with France. And in 1801, the nation’s third president, Thomas Jefferson, in his inaugural address, summed up American isolationism as a doctrine of peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã‚   The 19th Century: The Decline of US Isolationism Through the first half of the 19th century, America managed to maintain its political isolation despite its rapid industrial and economic growth and status as a world power. Historians again suggest that the nation’s geographical isolation from Europe continued to allow the U.S. to avoid the â€Å"entangling alliances† feared by the Founding Fathers. Without abandoning its policy of limited isolationism, the United States expanded its own borders from coast-to-coast and began creating territorial empires in the Pacific and the  Caribbean during the 1800s. Without forming binding alliances with Europe or any of the nations involved, the U.S. fought three wars: the War of 1812, the Mexican War, and the Spanish-American War. In 1823, the Monroe Doctrine boldly declared that the United States would consider the colonization of any independent nation in North or South America by a European nation to be an act of war. In delivering the historic decree, President James Monroe voiced the isolationist view, stating, â€Å"In the wars of the European powers, in matters relating to themselves, we have never taken part, nor does it comport with our policy, so to do.† But by the mid-1800s, a combination of world events began to test the resolve of American isolationists: The expansion of the German and Japanese military industrial empires that would eventually immerse the United States in two world wars had begun.Though short-lived, the occupation of the Philippines by the United States during the Spanish-American war had inserted American interests into the Western Pacific islands - an area generally considered to be part of Japan’s sphere of influence.Steamships, undersea communications cables, and radio enhanced America’s stature in world trade, but at the same time, brought her closer to her potential enemies. Within the United States itself, as industrialized mega-cities grew, small-town rural America - long the source of isolationist feelings - shrank. The 20th Century: The End of US Isolationism   World War I (1914 to 1919) Though actual battle never touched her shores, America’s participation in World War I marked the nation’s first departure from its historic isolationist policy. During the conflict, the United States entered into binding alliances with the United Kingdom, France, Russia, Italy, Belgium, and Serbia to oppose the Central Powers of Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. However, after the war, the United States returned to its isolationist roots by immediately ending all of its war-related European commitments. Against the recommendation of President Woodrow Wilson, the U.S. Senate rejected the war-ending Treaty of Versailles, because it would have required the U.S. to join the League of Nations. As America struggled through the Great Depression from 1929 to 1941, the nation’s foreign affairs took a back seat to economic survival. To protect U.S. manufacturers from foreign competition, the government imposed high tariffs on imported goods. World War I also brought an end to America’s historically open attitude toward immigration. Between the pre-war years of 1900 and 1920, the nation had admitted over 14.5 million immigrants. After the passage of the Immigration Act of 1917, fewer than 150,000 new immigrants had been allowed to enter the U.S. by 1929. The law restricted the immigration of â€Å"undesirables† from other countries, including â€Å"idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, alcoholics, poor, criminals, beggars, any person suffering attacks of insanity†¦Ã¢â‚¬  World War II (1939 to 1945) While avoiding the conflict until 1941, World War II marked a turning point for American isolationism. As Germany and Italy swept through Europe and North Africa, and Japan began taking over Eastern Asia, many Americans started to fear that the Axis powers might invade the Western Hemisphere next. By the end of 1940, American public opinion had started to shift in favor of using U.S. military forces to help defeat the Axis.   Still, nearly one million Americans supported the America First Committee, organized in 1940 to oppose the nation’s involvement in the war. Despite pressure from isolationists, President Franklin D. Roosevelt proceeded with his administration’s plans to assist the nations targeted by the Axis in ways not requiring direct military intervention. Even in the face of Axis successes, a majority of Americans continued to oppose actual U.S. military intervention. That all changed on the morning of December 7, 1941, when naval forces of Japan launched a sneak attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. On December 8, 1941, America declared war on Japan. Two days later, the America First Committee disbanded.   After World War II, the United States helped establish and became a charter member of the United Nations in October 1945. At the same time, the emerging threat posed by Russia under Joseph Stalin and the specter of communism that would soon result in the Cold War effectively lowered the curtain on the golden age of American isolationism. War on Terror: A Rebirth of Isolationism? While the terrorist attacks of Sept 11, 2001, initially spawned a spirit of nationalism unseen in America since World War II, the ensuing War on Terror may have resulted in the return  of American isolationism. Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq claimed thousands of American lives. At home, Americans fretted through a slow and fragile recovery from a Great Recession many economists compared to the Great Depression of 1929. Suffering from war abroad and a failing economy at home, America found itself in a situation very much like that of the late  1940s when isolationist feelings prevailed. Now as the threat of another war in Syria looms, a growing number of Americans, including some policymakers, are questioning the wisdom of further U.S. involvement. â€Å"We are not the world’s policeman, nor its judge and jury,† stated U.S. Rep. Alan Grayson (D-Florida) joining a bipartisan group of lawmakers arguing against U.S. military intervention in Syria. â€Å"Our own needs in America are great, and they come first.† In his first major speech after winning the 2016 presidential election, President-Elect Donald Trump expressed the isolationist ideology that became one of his campaign slogans - â€Å"America first.† â€Å"There is no global anthem, no global currency, no certificate of global citizenship,† Mr. Trump  said on December 1, 2016. â€Å"We pledge allegiance to one flag, and that flag is the American flag. From now on, its going to be America first. In their words, Rep. Grayson, a progressive Democrat, and President-Elect Trump, a conservative Republican, may have announced the rebirth of American isolationism.

Conflict Resolution

Conflict Resolution Conflict resolution skills are invaluable source of establishing peace. However, conflict has for a long time been misconstrued to mean only the physical disagreements between two parties. This paper looks at conflict particularly in regards to personal mental conflict on a particular dilemma whereby an individual may be faced with difficult decision making options.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Conflict Resolution specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This kind of would require balancing between more important issues and those that are not of high priority. Such decisions include balancing relationships, loss of employment and the quest to settle for another job opportunity, what subjects to study at a college, careers to pursue, places to inhabit, business ventures options, health matters among others. I chose to read this chapter of the book because it has immense information on what I actually needed to understand o n improving my overall motivation towards my vision. Plans are important in the pursuit of our set goals in life. The book also provided me with the information I was looking for especially on the area of conflict resolution as an individual. These are discussed in details in the remaining section of the essay. Research has shown that mental conflict and dilemma experienced by an individual may lead to stress. Additionally, distress may also manifest itself as an advance level of stress and depression. Finally, frustrations which may lead to an individual to be fixated, brain being rewired and even death in some cases through suicide Deutsch, Coleman Marcus, 2006). For one to effectively manage mental conflict, the individual victim must be prepared with the necessary tactics and skills of conflict resolution and the right knowledge on how to become proactive by self evaluation and regulation. This kind of approach enables an individual to understand self image, strengths, weakness , aspirations and threats from the world around and the needs of those with whom we interact with. One of the most important approaches to the resolution of the interpersonal conflict is the inculcation of willpower which is the aspirations of the individual in dilemma driven by the strength and the opportunities (Deutsch, Coleman Marcus, 2006). A person would have to forgo immediate self gratification which is of great pleasure for the sake of waiting for something far much more important but coming at a later date. I remember at my childhood, one day a young man collected about five of us and gave each of us a piece of banana. The rule of eating the piece of banana was that the first person to finish would be added but only on condition that the person takes very small bites of the banana.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This was the dilemma of the game since mo st of us believed that the only quickest way to finish first was to take big bites. All of us failed the test save for one girl who did take small bites but was never the first to finish. This kind of conflict is referred to us Marshmallow Dilemma which is a prototype self conflict according to psychological research. Understanding individual differences and the social and cognitive adaptive skill is key to conflict resolution in an individual. Consciousness and ego can be controlled through restrain by avoiding impulsive reactions. Research shows that effective self regulation beginning at an early age predicts that such individuals can manage their future lives in a better way and become more responsible citizens as opposed to those who cannot regulate themselves effectively at an early age (Deutsch, Coleman Marcus, 2006). Therefore, they are more likely to exhibit poor academic performance, disorders in offsprings and even become social deviants in society. Reference Deutsch, M. , Coleman, T. P. Marcus, C. E. (eds). (2006). The hand book of conflict resolution: theory and practice, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Conflict Resolution Human beings experience internal and external conflicts on daily basis as they struggle with temptations and dilemmas they encounter and create (Deutsch, Coleman Marcus, 2006, p.294). For example, a cigarette addict (suffocating with emphysema) determined to quit smoking may find himself/herself fighting the urge on whether to light the next cigarette or not.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Conflict Resolution specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Such internal conflicts are all-pervading as humans attempt to pursue a complex achievement or adhere to a health routine such as medications, prescribed diets or exercise schedules. This paper will discuss some salient features of internal and external conflicts and suggest how people can mitigate them. Conflict and stress are closely connected and work hand in hand in a manner that they weaken rational problem solving at the same time escalating self-defeating and irrational hot behavior (Rahim, 2011, p. 67). In this context, stress amplifies the likelihood for conflict which in turn increases stress level thereby generating a destructive gush of impulsive hot-system reactions. As a result, the likelihood of rational and effective conflict resolution if further undermined. Nonetheless, a number of studies have been done on this impasse and numerous solutions have been suggested on how handle conflicts in a constructive way (Deutsch, Coleman Marcus, 2006, p.302). The marshmallow test is one such example. For this case, delay of satisfaction and frustration tolerance is augmented if an individual can convert his/her average waiting time into an enjoyable, non-waiting state. There are two basic ways to accomplish this. One is by rerouting concentration and thoughts away from the exasperating elements of the delay of satisfaction and concentrating instead on pleasurable things. This type of distraction can be realized by taking part in mentally or overtly activities in the course of the delay period so as to repress the stress associated with waiting for the desired outcome. Distraction strategies such as time-outs are usually employed on a daily basis in conflict situations to allow people suppress the escalating conflict and concentrate on something else in order to calm down and take a fresh look (Deutsch, Coleman Marcus, 2006, p.302).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Second, the conflict arising from the delay period can also be alleviated by altering the manner in which people mentally embody the outcomes they are working or waiting for. Given the adverse effects of stress, the ability to manage stress is a critical aspect in conflict resolution. The ability to manage and alleviate stress enhances not only self-control and self-cooling but also the ability to produce and evaluate potential solutions to the conf lict. The ability to control stress can thus imply the difference between repressing hot desires and pouring out hysterically. It is against this background that Gottman and others (working with married couples with severe conflicts in their relationships) discovered that stress management tactics such as mediation, exercise and self-soothing habits for relaxing play important roles in terms of marital contentment and conflict resolution (Deutsch, Coleman Marcus, 2006, p.304). Severe conflicts, whether internal or external normally produce strong emotional excitement that can easily set off automatic reflective responses including hostility and fight or evasion and flight. These spontaneous responses often contribute to adverse long-term outcomes for the concerned parties. As the discussion above has elucidated, there are a variety of conflict management strategies (such as time-outs, reflection and mediation) that can be employed to facilitate the shift from hot impulsive response s to a cooler and efficient modes of cognitive problem solving. References Deutsch, M., Coleman, P.T., Marcus, E.C. (Eds.). (2006). The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Rahim, M.A. (Eds.). (2011). Managing Conflict in Organizations. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Conflict Resolution specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

Julissa Brisman and the Craigslist Killer

Julissa Brisman and the Craigslist Killer On April 14, 2009, Julissa Brisman, 25, was meeting a man named Andy who had answered a masseuse ad that she had placed in the Exotic Services section of Craigslist. The two had emailed back and forth to arrange the time and agreed on 10 p.m. that night. Julissa had an arrangement with her friend, Beth Salomonis. It was a security system of sorts. When someone would call the number Julissa had listed on Craigslist, Beth would answer the call. She would then text Julissa that he was on the way. Julissa would then text Beth back when the man left. At around 9:45 p.m. Andy called and Beth told him to go to Julissas room at 10 p.m. She sent a text to Julissa, with a reminder to text her when it was over, but she never heard back from her friend. From Robbery to Murder of  Julissa Brisman At 10:10 p.m. the police were called to the Marriott Copley Place hotel in Boston after hotel guests heard screams coming from a hotel room. The hotel security found Julissa Brisman in her underwear, lying in the doorway of her hotel room. She was covered in blood with a plastic zip-tie around one wrist. EMS rushed her to Boston Medical Center, but she died within minutes of her arrival. At the same time, the investigators were looking at hotel surveillance photos. One showed a young, tall, blond man wearing a cap on an escalator at 10:06 p.m. The man looked familiar. One of the detectives recognized him as the same man who Trisha Leffler had identified as her attacker just four days earlier. Only this time his victim was beaten and shot to death. The medical examiner said Julissa Brisman had suffered a fractured skull in multiple places from being hit with a gun. She was shot three times- one shot to her chest, one to her stomach and one into her heart. She had bruises and welts on her wrists. She had also managed to scratch her attacker. The skin under her nails would provide the DNA of her killer. Beth called Marriott security early the next morning. She had not been able to get in touch with Julissa. Her call was routed to the police and she received the details of what had happened. She hoped by providing the investigators with Andys email address and his cell phone information that it would be of some help. As it turned out, the email address proved to be the most valuable clue to the investigation. The Craigslist Killer Brismans murder was picked up by the news media and the suspect was dubbed the Craigslist Killer (although he is not the only one that has been given this moniker). By the end of the day following the murder, several news organizations  were aggressively reporting on the murder along with copies of the surveillance photos that the police had provided. Two days later the suspect emerged again. This time he attacked Cynthia Melton in a hotel room in Rhode Island, but he was interrupted by the victims husband. Fortunately, he did not use the gun that he had pointed at the couple. He opted to run instead. Clues left behind at each attack led the Boston detectives to the arrest of 22-year-old Philip Markoff. He was in his second year of medical school, engaged and he had never been arrested. Markoff was charged with armed robbery, kidnapping, and murder. Those close to Markoff knew the police had made a mistake and arrested the wrong man. However, over 100 pieces of evidence had turned up, all pointing to Markoff as the right man. Death Before there was a chance for a jury to decide on who was right, Markoff took his own life in his cell at Bostons Nashua Street Jail. The Craigslist Killer case ended abruptly and without the victims or their loved ones feeling like justice had been served.

Choose a narrow topic of Public Relations within marketing Assignment

Choose a narrow topic of Public Relations within marketing communication, then write a critical review of theory relating to tha - Assignment Example According to various observations from different scholars, it has been identified that PR is regarded as one of the major, effective as well as versatile tools of marketing communication that enables to enhance as well as to develop the efficiency of each marketing activity. It can be executed by taking into concern both internal as well as external business environment of a specific organisation (Zerfass & Duhring, 2012; Xifra & Huertas, 2008). Based on the various literatures concerning determining the role and the significance of PR in the arena of marketing communication, the paper intends to critically analyse the contribution of public relation to the efficiency of marketing communication. The discussion of this report will mainly focus on critically reviewing different literatures concerning the role and the influences of PR in the field of marketing communication process. Moreover, different theories or models concerning the function of PR in marketing communication will also be critically reviewed throughout this discussion. With this concern, the description in this report will further focus on identifying the importance and oversights of conducting PR practices in the segment of marketing communication, especially concerning the events industry. Critical Review of the Literatures The emergence of modern trends that are followed by the global organisations has been found to be highly focused on enhancing the capability of the marketing communication through involving an effective PR process. With regard to the notion of marketing communication efficiency, Stroh (2007) revealed that PR is one of the major and widely used approaches for the modern organisations. According to the observation of the study made by Zerfass and Duhring (2012), it has been viewed that both marketing communication and PR simultaneously have been passing through a dramatic and evolutionary growth during the past few decades. Both these aspects have been noted to experience amaz ing developments in the global business world. PR can be recognised as one of the major independent functions of the modern business organisations. The concept of PR, being an element of marketing communication, insists the global organisations should practice different strategies to effectively develop the significant concern of PR in the marketing process (Cochrane & Hazou, 2012). Moreover, Arnoldi (2012), Prindle (2011), and Grunig and Grunig (1998) stated that PR is recognised to be one of the major contributory factors for an organisation to efficiently perform its broad assortment of marketing activities. According to Grunig and Grunig (1998), it has been apparently observed that PR offers two major benefits to different organisations that include increasing sales and raising business reputation that in turn could lead the organisations towards accomplishing their predetermined business targets to a greater extent. Watson (2011) and Grunig and Grunig (1998) noted that PR canno t be considered as a sales tool; rather, it can be viewed as an extensively effective approach that enables an organisation to

A Theory of Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

A Theory of Art - Essay Example Art is an important part of the life experience as it evokes feelings and emotions that attach themselves to the work in question and portrays the meaning of our culture. Yet, society continues to struggle with the definition of art. Art defies description; we may know it when we see it, but we can not define it as it is too complex, varied, and prone to individual subjectivity. To define art, it is first necessary to define where the art is at. The art may be the act of its production, the end result, or the sensation that the viewer experiences from the encounter. To be considered art, all three components must be consciously involved in its production. As an example, if a paint can inadvertently spills onto a canvas, it is not art even if it is beautiful. There was no action on the part of the artist that would elevate an accidental spill to the level of art. Likewise, if the art produces no sensation in the viewer, such as a bottle of urine, then the art has no artistic content no matter how much time and effort the artist spent. Allowing a work to be labelled 'art' that does not meet these requirements results in the flood of mediocrity, and worse, that has recently come to the attention of the popular media. Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres described these types of works in the 18th century as, "banality, which is a public scourge, which afflicts taste a nd burdens the administration, fruitlessly absorbing resources, it would be best to abandon exhibitions; to declare boldly that only monumental painting be encouraged" (cited in Harrison, Wood, & Gaiger, 1998, p.469). Ignoring this important aspect of art has been responsible for inappropriate bodily fluids being labelled and accepted as mainstream art. The standard definition of art includes the traditional view that artwork is characterized by the possession of representational properties, expressive properties, or formal properties (Adajian, 2007). This definition also would include many items that are not art and were never intended to be art. A shopping list would not be considered art, yet may qualify under this generic definition. This simplistic set of requirements is not complete enough and is too broad to be of any value. While it may describe some objects and acts that are not art, it stops far short of defining what art is. To accommodate and update this traditional definition, recent decades have seen a surge of theories and movements designed to justify new and unusual art forms.Any theory or movement that adequately defines art and aestheticism would be necessarily narrow and exclusionary. While some schools of art, such as the Dada movement believes that anything can be art, other movements, such as minimalism, belie ve that nothing is art. These extreme positions, in regards to the definition of art, only serve to include every worldly endeavour as artistically worthwhile, but do little to help define art. In fact, these broad, nihilistic, and inclusive movements dilute art's purpose, meaning, and cultural value. Art needs to be defined within a set of boundaries that are acceptable by cognitive recognition and reflect a sense of values. This does not imply that the values need to adhere to any preconceived framework of acceptability. While racism may be an unacceptable human value, its portrayal could serve

Fat, Sick and Nearly Dead Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Fat, Sick and Nearly Dead - Essay Example Roughly a hundred pounds overweight, stuffed with steroids and ill with an encumbering autoimmune illness, Joe Cross is unable to find hope. Fat, Sick and Nearly Dead is an inspirational and a moving documentary film that records Cross personal undertaking to gain back his fitness and health. With doctors and medication incapable to provide lasting help, Cross is left with no choice but to rely on the body's capability to cure itself. He throws the junk food out of the window and travels all across America with a juicer and generator, declaring to drink only fresh fruit and vegetable juice for the following two months. Lugubriously overweight and so close to death’s door, Phil Staples starts his personal journey to live a normal healthy life once again. What arises is astoundingly remarkable, an inspirational story of recovery and human relationship. Fat, Sick and Nearly Dead present an exceptional and heartening tale of two individuals from two different worlds that, with a c ommon goal, unite. This movie has undoubtedly opened my eyes to the reality of obesity in our society. It is a serious condition and has serious effects. There are so many people in this world right now who are suffering from overweightness. They must take action right away before their downhill path gets any worse. The consequences of obesity are great and sometimes, irreversible. Sickness and illnesses, susceptibility to heart diseases and cancer are far greater than people with a healthy weight. Discipline and the determination are the key aspects that will surely help one in regaining their health and the many years they have lost due to obesity. Your lifestyle is of utmost importance because it determines your everyday life. It defines who you are and what you are capable of. However, most importantly, your lifestyle determines how long you will live.

European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)-Italy Term Paper

European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)-Italy - Term Paper Example The German dominance in the European Union may have caused a lot of trouble in the policy implementation for economic terms. More than this, the recent recession is believed to have an impact on the economies of the world. This paper wishes to depict the mission and structure of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) in creating a direct connection towards the detrimental effects the cluster has made to Italy. Moreover, the economic state of Italy will then be described based on the output of fiscal and monetary policies of the country and aligned with the trade and foreign investment scheme. The European Sovereign Debt Crisis will then be discussed focusing on Italy’s experience during the crisis, and the causes of the crisis will also be explicated. Finally, a conclusive remark, which states the general perspective of the researcher, will be sighted in the conclusion. 2.0 Mission and Structure of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) The greatest problem that was faced by the European nations centered on how to build a sole market for capital, goods, and services and entities amid Member States that have interrelated economies, aligned with manifold currencies, and inconstant, weak forex rates. The construction of the EMU was an optimum alternative in curing such detrimental European problem (Liebscher). The errands of the EMU are in delved into three significant activities: to implement an efficient monetary policy aligned with price stability; to harmonize the economic policies in the Member States and; (3) to ensure the fluent operation of the sole market . The monetary policy’s focal objective is price stability. If a nation wants to achieve a free-market economy, price stability should be its priority. The Eurosystem’s prior goal is to sustain price stability because the latter reflects a pre-state of a maintainable economic progress and proliferating employment rate (Liebscher 378). The EMU would assist its Member States about public finances, which are aligned with the meeting of fiscal debt and deficit requirement (379). Lastly, institutional stability is also the target of the EMU wherein Member States are required to undergo institutional reforms (382). 3.0 Economic State of Italy 3.1 Fiscal and Monetary Policies Fiscal policy is the alterations in federal taxes and government expenditure in order to attain macroeconomic goals. Monetary policy, on the other hand, is the action executed by the European Central Bank and the national bank to manage the accessibility of cash and interest rates in achieving goals. Fiscal policy is essential to restrain the prejudice done by the state in terms of deficiency. This policy serves as a barrier for the government overspending, deficiency issues, and restrictions in implementing discretionary rules. When intense pressure attacks the economy, wherein monetary policy’s efficiency dissolves, fiscal policy can be a remedy to resolve the pecuniary issues (Liebscher 3 79). In terms of fiscal policies, there has to be 0.5 percent of yearly development of the gross domestic product of the country as stipulated by the reformed Pact (Marino, Momigliano, and Rizza 445). In 1997, Italy had accumulated a 1.4 percent of GDP, which was the end of the consolidation proceedings of the 1990s. When Italy was reformed, especially on the accounts of stability and economic growth, the grounds for the formulation of the policies were stipulated from the event. In fact, the Bank of Italy

Project Budget Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Project Budget - Essay Example They will require a training period of four days each involving five hours of training. The division will facilitate understanding of the new system and legal compliances surrounding the database system. The eventual result is to see the database system link all the data in the three branches belonging to offsite. The entire process will cover an estimated cost of $1000 (Lech, 2013). The budget was arrived at based on the number of the days in the training, the number of trainees and the efficiency the practice would bring. The new system seeks to organize, combine and maintain the data that is essential for operations. The aim is to centralize the firm’s operations that involve human resources, finances, distribution and production into one database system. The training will center on how to protect the database system, how to find out penetrations to the system and how to get out of such a situation. The latter will ensure compliance with the standing laws and regulations to the rules, policies and principles established in the firm. To ascertain the success of the project, will use questionnaires, peer reviews, observation, and interviews. The implementers of the system will be in a position to evaluate how the persons at the operational level are using the system. Critical tasks will involve teaching team leaders the firm’s work-flows. That is vital for the implementation of the system since the persons doing this need to understand the processes in the business (Dobson & Leemann, 2010). That will enable them to customize the system specifically for the needs of the company. Therefore, these persons need to analyze the users needs critically. The training will include training of individuals how to examine processes from their departmental perspectives. The next stage will involve establishing a relationship between the new system being implemented and the old system. New ways of accomplishing the old ways will be taught with

WTS Migration Plan To Develop E-Business Capability Essay

WTS Migration Plan To Develop E-Business Capability - Essay Example Many commentators refer to e-commerce as all electronically mediated transaction between an organization and any third party it deals with. By this definition, non-financial transaction such as customers’ requests for further information would also be considered to be part of e-commerce. E-business or e-commerce refer to the technology/ system integrate with commerce i.e. purchase of goods and services over world wide web via secure servers with shopping carts and with electronic pay services like credit cards payment authorization. Impact of e-business on organizations is happening right before our eyes a vast and rapid reconfiguration of business on an unprecedented scale. Impact of e-business on almost every part of the organisation is evident. Choosing the important infrastructure i.e. appropriate technology and service provider is of utmost importance. Service providers and IT groups directly affect the value of the enterprises. E-business needs whole lot of infrastructur al change. The technical infrastructure element of e-business consists of Internet and server technologies, hardware and software. Apart from the infrastructure needed for any business i.e. man, money and machine, e-business needs some specific infrastructure to succeed which are known as business application infrastructure which supports e-business design by providing the software functionality required for the business design to work. E-business infrastructure, which has been needed by WTS, could be classified

European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)-Italy Term Paper

European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)-Italy - Term Paper Example The German dominance in the European Union may have caused a lot of trouble in the policy implementation for economic terms. More than this, the recent recession is believed to have an impact on the economies of the world. This paper wishes to depict the mission and structure of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) in creating a direct connection towards the detrimental effects the cluster has made to Italy. Moreover, the economic state of Italy will then be described based on the output of fiscal and monetary policies of the country and aligned with the trade and foreign investment scheme. The European Sovereign Debt Crisis will then be discussed focusing on Italy’s experience during the crisis, and the causes of the crisis will also be explicated. Finally, a conclusive remark, which states the general perspective of the researcher, will be sighted in the conclusion. 2.0 Mission and Structure of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) The greatest problem that was faced by the European nations centered on how to build a sole market for capital, goods, and services and entities amid Member States that have interrelated economies, aligned with manifold currencies, and inconstant, weak forex rates. The construction of the EMU was an optimum alternative in curing such detrimental European problem (Liebscher). The errands of the EMU are in delved into three significant activities: to implement an efficient monetary policy aligned with price stability; to harmonize the economic policies in the Member States and; (3) to ensure the fluent operation of the sole market . The monetary policy’s focal objective is price stability. If a nation wants to achieve a free-market economy, price stability should be its priority. The Eurosystem’s prior goal is to sustain price stability because the latter reflects a pre-state of a maintainable economic progress and proliferating employment rate (Liebscher 378). The EMU would assist its Member States about public finances, which are aligned with the meeting of fiscal debt and deficit requirement (379). Lastly, institutional stability is also the target of the EMU wherein Member States are required to undergo institutional reforms (382). 3.0 Economic State of Italy 3.1 Fiscal and Monetary Policies Fiscal policy is the alterations in federal taxes and government expenditure in order to attain macroeconomic goals. Monetary policy, on the other hand, is the action executed by the European Central Bank and the national bank to manage the accessibility of cash and interest rates in achieving goals. Fiscal policy is essential to restrain the prejudice done by the state in terms of deficiency. This policy serves as a barrier for the government overspending, deficiency issues, and restrictions in implementing discretionary rules. When intense pressure attacks the economy, wherein monetary policy’s efficiency dissolves, fiscal policy can be a remedy to resolve the pecuniary issues (Liebscher 3 79). In terms of fiscal policies, there has to be 0.5 percent of yearly development of the gross domestic product of the country as stipulated by the reformed Pact (Marino, Momigliano, and Rizza 445). In 1997, Italy had accumulated a 1.4 percent of GDP, which was the end of the consolidation proceedings of the 1990s. When Italy was reformed, especially on the accounts of stability and economic growth, the grounds for the formulation of the policies were stipulated from the event. In fact, the Bank of Italy

WTS Migration Plan To Develop E-Business Capability Essay

WTS Migration Plan To Develop E-Business Capability - Essay Example Many commentators refer to e-commerce as all electronically mediated transaction between an organization and any third party it deals with. By this definition, non-financial transaction such as customers’ requests for further information would also be considered to be part of e-commerce. E-business or e-commerce refer to the technology/ system integrate with commerce i.e. purchase of goods and services over world wide web via secure servers with shopping carts and with electronic pay services like credit cards payment authorization. Impact of e-business on organizations is happening right before our eyes a vast and rapid reconfiguration of business on an unprecedented scale. Impact of e-business on almost every part of the organisation is evident. Choosing the important infrastructure i.e. appropriate technology and service provider is of utmost importance. Service providers and IT groups directly affect the value of the enterprises. E-business needs whole lot of infrastructur al change. The technical infrastructure element of e-business consists of Internet and server technologies, hardware and software. Apart from the infrastructure needed for any business i.e. man, money and machine, e-business needs some specific infrastructure to succeed which are known as business application infrastructure which supports e-business design by providing the software functionality required for the business design to work. E-business infrastructure, which has been needed by WTS, could be classified

Palestine and Peace Essay Example for Free

Palestine and Peace Essay The peace situation in the Middle East has been very contentious. Palestine, particularly, has been very violent. The nation of Israel has been in constant fight over the Palestinian territory. Up to a certain degree, even civilians have been affected; through the wars and the conflicts going on in different areas in Israel and the Palestinian region. Although Israel found itself against most of the Arab nations in the world, it was able to survive the difficulties of the region through the help of its allies, particularly, the United States of America (Dershowitz, 2004). Ironically, through the involvement of the US with the affairs of Israel in the Middle East, it earned the ire of a number of Arab countries (Wasserstein, 2003). Israel and Palestine: A Profile of a Conflict The US has been involved extensively in several efforts in brokering peace between the nation of Israel and Palestine. In some ways, it has been successful but in others, the US needed to provide military support to Israel to help it with its situation. There has been several contentions though in trying to understand the relationship of the United States and Israel. As former president of the United States, Jimmy Carter (2006) was also involved in the relationship of his country with Israel. He has written a monumental book Palestine Peace No Apartheid, which has been considered as a bookseller all over the world. Carter’s primary reason for writing the book is the presentation of facts and events regarding the peace situation in the Middle East, particularly in Israel and Palestine. In doing so, his intention is to revive the peace talks that have stopped for more than six years when he wrote the book in 2006. He also wishes to deal with the two major obstacles to a long-term peace in the Palestine region. One is the way in which Israel took control of the land and continues to persecute the Palestinians residing in the area. On the other hand, Palestine also promotes and indirectly honors the suicide bombers sowing discord and violence even among civilians in the area. These two main beliefs that the opposite side holds continue to aggravate the situation and prevent them from achieving a suitable compromise for the sake of peace in the region. Carter presented the situation of Israel and Palestine through a chronological presentation of his presidency as it unfolded. His approach also went beyond that of his presidency. He also outlined the legacy of the past US president that he succeeded. With such an approach, he set the state of events when he entered the political arena that the United States was in. After outlining his own presidency, he also traced the peace-making activities engaged into by the administration of those who succeeded him such as George Bush, Bill Clinton, and the current administration of George W. Bush. He presented his understanding of the facts in the seventeen chapters of his book (Carter, 2006, p. 37). He also explored several themes and political issues in the relationship of Israel and Palestine and the important issues that tend to undermine the peace process in the region. In addition, he also explores the role of the United States in the process. Jimmy Carter also called for the cessation of violence and terrorism on the part of both Israel and Palestine. The civilian death toll has reached horrifying heights even though they are supposed to be part of the armed combat that the two sides of the conflict are engaged in. Carter also claimed that Israel has occupied Palestine although there have already been a lot of people residing in the area. The state of Israel has seized different areas of significance and has affected the civilian population of both sides. This has gone on for more almost forty years by the time that Carter wrote the book. In addition to this, there are artificial divisions imposed upon the Israelis and Palestinians. Inclined towards the Side of Palestine Carter’s point of view, however, tends to be inclined to the cause of the Palestinians. He cites the different oppression that Palestinians are undergoing, which includes being prohibited from the places of worship and the difficulties of Arabs to pass through the borders of Israel. More than that, the West Bank houses a wall that separates Israelis and Palestinians. A number of conflicts have arisen along this wall and thousands of civilians have lost their lives due to violence occurring near this wall. In addition to West Bank, Israeli forces have also taken over Gaza and deprived the Palestinians the use of their own land according to Carter. Although there have been important strides made in the realm of promoting democracy in Palestine, Israel and the United States have declared economic restrictions against Palestine because of the victory of Hamas in the past elections. Because of this, the people of Palestine are experiencing shortage of their needs in every area of life. More than that, they also do not have access to the territories of Palestine that Israel has already occupied. According to Carter, the efforts of Mahmoud Abbas, who is the leader of the Palestinian Liberation Organization, to talk with Israel to negotiate peace have been rebuffed. As such, the violence and conflict continues to this day. Carter’s analysis of events point out to the shortcomings of Israel to follow up on its commitments to uphold its end of the bargain. What is needed is a firm commitment on the part of Israel to give back the territories of Palestine that it has occupied. All of the international and regional peace accords arrived at by the UN Resolutions, the Camp David Accords, which was negotiated in 1978, the Agreement in Oslo in 1993, and the different policies of US regarding peace in the Middle East are all based around the premise that Israel should give lands back to the Palestinians. Carter also pointed out the necessity for Palestine to recognize the legal stay of Israel within the borders of Palestine. This assertion of Carter, however, is highly controversial one as it proposes a very dramatic resolution to the conflict between Israel and Palestine. Jimmy Carter and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict The proposals made by Jimmy Carter in his book are bold and courageous. In a way, his book is also reminiscent of his own term as US President in which he was able to broker a peace agreement between Israel and Egypt. This was instrumental in bringing a measure of peace to the Middle East region. After leaving the presidency, he has remained aware of the developments of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in the Middle East. He has even made trips to Palestine in order to grace some events and conduct talks and research in the region. Everyone longs for peace in the Middle East. The wars fought in the region have been very frequent. As such, the lives of people are constantly disrupted because of the escalation and eruption of violence. Carter sees the peace process in the Middle East as one which gives dignity to Palestine and justice in regards to its claims over the lands that it occupies and those that are now being occupied by Israel. In his conclusion, the author outlined a three-step approach to end the violence and conflict in the area. The first one is that Israel’s security should not be undermined in any way. In addition to that, the legal boundaries of Israel should be established. But before that can be done, the major internal debates occurring in different segments in Israel should be resolved. Lastly, the borders of any nation, whether they be in the Middle East or elsewhere should be respected and upheld. As a consequence, this means that Israel might have to retreat and surrender back the lands that it has claimed in the past years. Conclusion Jimmy Carter’s book is a courageous book and attempts to present the facts to the Americans, who tend to have conflicting viewpoints regarding the situation in the Middle East. His use of the term â€Å"Apartheid† in the subtitle of the book, however, appears to be uncalled for and conjures images of violence based on the discrimination of race in societies such as South Africa. The use of this term seems to be inappropriate for his subject matter. In a society that is quite afraid to truly deal with the situation, Carter’s voice jolts people in their seats and calls on the importance of working for peace in the Middle East, particularly, for Israel and Palestine. This is a scathing rebuke of the lack of peace talks spearheaded by the current administration of the United States. In addition to this, Jimmy Carter appears to cast his administration in a positive light in regards to the topic of peace-making in the Middle East and berates the present administration for its lack of efforts in resolving the conflict in the region. The conflict between Israel and Palestine has been going on for several decades now. There are a number of competing views and perspectives regarding the involvement of the United States in this conflict. Yet, Carter’s voice is another voice shouting for the necessity of working for peace. He even suggests several paths that can be followed. However, it remains to be seen whether his approach works or whether he is only adding to the cacophony of confusing sounds. Reference Carter, J. (2006). Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid. New York: Simon and Schuster Dershowitz, A. (2004). The Case for Israel. New York: John Wiley Sons. Wasserstein, B. (2003). Israelis and Palestinians. Yale University Press.

Pronunciation Teaching Within A Theoretical Framework English Language Essay

Pronunciation Teaching Within A Theoretical Framework English Language Essay Although a number of studies have been reported regarding segmental over the past fifteen years for an overview, see Ekman, 2003; Strange, 1995, there are only a small number of studies focusing on L2 stress in an EFL context. On the other hand, suprasegmental properties, including stress, play an important role in second language acquisition. They are shown to be closely related to foreign accent perceived in L2 production and to difficulties in L2 perception. Researchers have attributed the problems with stress to the influence of the L1 prosodic system. However, these studies are inadequate, as their focus on stress acquisition mainly relies on the comparison of the phonological systems of L1 and L2. As Flege (1987) pointed out in research on L2 speech development at the segmental level, it is important to take phonetic details into account in order to gain a better understanding of the possible transfer of L1. The same is true for studies of prosody. It is possible that the influence of L1 lies in the difference between L1 and L2 in the employment of relevant phonetic correlates. 2.2. The history of pronunciation teaching within a theoretical framework Popular opinion regarding the place of pronunciation training in the ESL or EFL curriculum has ebbed and flowed along with the historical framework of language learning theories and methodologies. Prior to the popularity of the direct method in the late nineteenth century, pronunciation received little overt focus within the language classroom. Advocates of the direct method claim that an initial emphasis on listening without pressure to speak allows learners to acquire grammar inductively and to internalize the target sound system before speaking, much the way children acquire their first language (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, Goodwin, 1996, as cited in Aufderhaar, 2004). Although popular in elite private European schools, the direct method was rejected by the public schools and by most language schools in the United States as impractical due the classroom time, effort and background required of both the teacher and students for the success of this approach. Criticism centered around the time-consuming nature of this instruction at a time in which most students only studied foreign language for two years, along with a lack of qualified teachers who had a comfortable, native-like fluency at their command. As a result, this essentially intuitive-imitative approach gave way to the return of the grammar translation approach of the reading era, with very little attention to pronunciation (Celce-Murcia et al., 1996, as cited in Aufderhaar, 2004). According to Aufderhaar (2004), both the direct and grammar translation methods were more emphasized when there was a sudden and urgent need for qualified interpreters and intelligence to learn English with the advent of World War II. Rooted in Skinners (1957) theory of behaviorism which treated the acquisition of verbal skills as environmentally-determined stimulus-response behavior, the audiolingual method required intensive oral drilling for entire working days, six days a week (E. R. Brown, 1997). In contrast to the grammar-translation method, pronunciation was now considered to be of the highest priority, with phonetic transcription and articulation explicitly taught through charts and demonstrations, along with imitation (Celce-Murcia et al., 1996, as cited in Aufderhaar, 2004). While generally proving successful within the military environment of small classes of highly motivated instructors and students whose well being depended in part on their command of the target language, the theoretical foundation of audiolingualism was shaken by the reality of the post World War II language classroom that was not conducive to this military regimen. Its strongest critic was Chomsky (1957), whose introduction of the generative-transformational theory viewed the underlying meaning of the whole as being more important than any one part. His focus on the creative, rule-governed nature of competence and performance led many educators to the conclusion that pronunciation should remain inductively within the context of morphology and syntax (Kreidler, 1989). At the heart of this hypothesis was the suggestion that all language skills, including listening comprehension, verbal production and pronunciation, are so integrated that there is no need to address them as separate an d distinct features (Brown, 1997). The influence of Chomskys generative-transformational theory, along with the cognitive-code theory of the 1960s, which focused on listening at the discourse level and discarded skill ordering, paved the way for the trend to avoid or ignore direct pronunciation teaching altogether. The advent of the communicative approach in the late 1970s and early 1980s likewise deemed the teaching of pronunciation as ineffective and hopeless, instead it emphasized language functions over forms with the goal being overall communicative competence and listening comprehension for general meaning: MacCarthy (1976) stated that at present any teaching of pronunciation is so ineffective as to be largely a waste of time. (p. 212). At that time, many instructors of the communicative approach assumed that pronunciation skills would be acquired naturally within the context of second language input and communicative practice. However, pronunciation was not entirely ignored in the time period of the 1960s through the mid 1980s. Remnants of the audiolingual approach lingered within structural linguistics, which viewed language learning as a process of mastering hierarchies of structurally related items for encoding meaning (Morley, 1991). When pronunciation was addressed, instruction was generally oriented toward the drilling of individual sounds via articulatory descriptions and minimal pair contrasts (Chun, 2002). It is the reliance on this traditional phonemic-based approach which Leather (1987) mentions one of the reasons for the demise of pronunciation teaching during this era: The process, viewed as meaningless non-communicative drill-and-exercise gambits, lost its appeal; likewise, the product, that is, the success ratio for the time and energy expended, was found wanting. (Morley, 1991, p. 486). Attitudes ranged from serious questioning as to whether pronunciation could be overtly taught and learned at all (Chun, 2002), to unwavering claims that adults were simply unable to acquire second language pronunciation (Scovel, 1988). According to Madsen and Bowen (1978), the lack of attention to pronunciation, which was prevalent in the communicative approach of the late 1970s and early 1980s and the direct assertion by many that pronunciation could not be taught, resulted in a great number of international students who were failed communicate effectively or even intelligibly although they had been instructed for a long time. This situation sparked research in second language acquisition that suggested a departure from the traditional, bottom-up phonemic-based approach to pronunciation teaching toward a top-down orientation focusing on suprasegmental or prosodic aspects such as rhythm, intonation, and duration. Defined by Wennerstrom (2001, as cited in Aufderhaar, 2004) as a general term encompassing intonation, rhythm, tempo, loudness, and pauses, as these interact with syntax, lexical meaning, and segmental phonology in spoken texts (p.4), prosody has historically been ignored or relegated to the fringes of research and pedagogy, due in large part, according to Chun (2002), to its inherent complexity and difficulty mastering it. Considered notoriously difficult to acquire and define, Bolinger (1972) labeled the most controversial aspect of prosody, intonation, the greasy part of language. Despite its historical back-seat status, an undercurrent of research regarding prosody has spanned several disciplines. The first documented study of speech melody has been traced back to Steele (Couper-Kuhlen, 1993, as cited in Aufderhaar, 2004), who, in 1775, used musical notation to identify pitch variations that occur in regular forms upon syllables. Unfortunately, his materials, based on five features he identified as accent, quantity, pause, emphasis and force were dependent upon fixed and absolute musical pitches rather than flexible and relative tones, apparently lacking in practical applicability (Pike, 1945). 2.3. Pronunciation research in applied linguistics Although attaining native-like pronunciation that facilitates mutual intelligibility is considered important for many language learners and teachers alike, there have been few empirical studies of pronunciation in applied linguistics (Derwing Munro,2005; Levis, 2005). For example, Derwing and Munro (2005, p. 386) state that it is widely accepted that suprasegmentals are very important to intelligibility, but as yet few studies support this belief. This claim is supported by other researchers such as Hahn (1994) and Levis (2005) who states that over the past 25 years there has been encouragement to teach suprasegmentals though very little pedagogy has been based on empirical research. The usefulness of empirical research for developing more effective pronunciation teaching is obvious. As Levis (2005) states, instruction should focus on those features that are most helpful for understanding and should deemphasize those that are relatively unhelpful ( pp. 370-371). Munro (2008) echoes this point when stating that it is important to establish a set of priorities for teaching. If one aspect of pronunciation instruction is more likely to promote intelligibility than some other aspect, it deserves more immediate attention. (p. 197). Of course, we must first know what the most important elements are to ensure optimal instruction and learning outcomes. As Munro (2008) argues, because prosody encompasses a wide range of speech phenomena, further research is needed to pinpoint those aspects of prosody that are most critical (p.210). Hahn (2004, p. 201) agrees that there is little empirical support for claims that teaching suprasegmentals is helpful and that knowing how the various prosodic features actually affect the way native speakersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦process nonnative speech would substantially strengthen the rationale for current pronunciation pedagogy. For that reason, Hahn (2004) reiterates that it is important to identify the phonological features that are most salient for native listeners. Due to the complex relationship between suprasegmentals and intelligibility, Hahn (2004) argues that it is helpful to isolate particular suprasegmental features for analyses (p. 201). Hahns argument supports the importance of the research in this dissertation in which the acoustic correlates of English lexical stress are isolated and manipulated individually to identify which are the most pertinent to the perception of speech intelligibility and nativeness. Levis (2005) states that pronunciation teaching has been a study in extremes in that it was once considered the most important aspect of language learning (when audiolingual methods were favored) and then became very much marginalized in communicative language teaching. Of the research that has been carried out, such as that on intonation patterns, little of it finds its place in pronunciation textbooks (Derwing, 2008; Derwing Munro, 2005; Levis, 2005; Tarone, 2005). Therefore, there is a need to first fill a gap in empirical research treating aspects of second language pronunciation and then to ensure that these findings are relayed to professionals in the fields of education and applied linguistics so that L2 students can benefit from these findings. Once a general framework for the delivery of instruction is chosen, the next step in designing a course of any type is to consider the needs and desires of the students and create course objectives and learning outcomes. As stated earlier, ESL students are typically concerned with issues such as intelligibility, accent and nativeness. Students often voice their goals regarding attaining proficiency in these areas and teachers should consider which goals are realistic (Avery Ehrlich, 1992). To do so, the students current abilities must be assessed in order to target strategies that will help achieve these goals. Assessing students abilities is crucial in planning pronunciation teaching. Derwing (2003; 2008) stresses that each student should be assessed individually to identify the students strengths and weaknesses and determine individual needs in pronunciation. These assessments can be done in a formal or informal way by the teacher and can include self-reports or self-assessments by the students. Self-assessments by students can provide insight into the students perceived needs, although these needs may be biased by the students previous experience with pronunciation instruction. Derwing (2003) found that of the pronunciation problems identified [by the students], roughly 79% were segmental [in nature], while only 11% were related to prosody.(p.554). In other words, students are simply more aware of segmental elements than they are of prosodic ones due to more previous instruction on segmental elements. Once evaluations have been completed, the question becomes how to address the language learners pronunciation issues. A complication arises at this point because students in ESL classes typically come from very mixed language backgrounds. Even the varying needs of students in EFL classrooms, where all learners are from the same native language background, can be challenging as individual students have individual needs. Therefore, integrating pronunciation lessons into class activities can be challenging in ESL classrooms as a particular speaker (or group of speakers) may have little difficulty with a particular element of pronunciation while others have great difficulty. A well-known example is Japanese speakers difficulty acquiring /r/ and /l/ (Bradlow, 2008) which does not cause any trouble for Spanish speakers. As Derwing (2003) advises, focusing heavily on segmental instruction in mixed classrooms is inappropriate due to the variety of language backgrounds and, therefore, prosody should be emphasized as it can have greater importance for a larger diversity of students. Derwing (2008) also argues that instruction in prosody transfers better to spontaneous speech than instruction on segmentals. Many instructors are reluctant to teach pronunciation and often unsure how to go about doing it (Derwing Munro, 2005; Hewings, 2006) as they feel underprepared or have little support in terms of course materials. Derwing (2003) estimates that only about 30% of pronunciation teachers have formal linguistic training in pronunciation pedagogy. To address this issue, it is important that empirical research on pronunciation be conveyed in a clear manner to language teachers so that they can pass this information along to students. To be certain, pronunciation should be considered an important element of ESL classroom instruction. It has been noted above that pronunciation is implicated in critical elements of communication such as speech intelligibility, and can also affect perception of nativeness. In addition, accurate pronunciation is critical for students needing to pass standardized English tests such as the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) for entrance into colleges and universities in English-speaking countries, or when interviewed by entities such as the Foreign Service Institute which assesses not only a persons grammar and vocabulary but also comprehension, fluency and accent in oral interviews (Varonis Gass, 1982). Pronunciation is also a key element in programs that prepares international teaching assistants to become teachers in American classrooms (Hahn, 2004; Wennerstrom, 1998). 2.4. The reasons for teaching pronunciation One of the most urgent reasons for effective pronunciation instruction centers on the large number of non-native English speakers attending American colleges and universities. According to The Institute for International Education, these students numbered 547,867 in the 2000/2001 school year, with a substantial number serving as graduate teaching assistants. The increase in the hours of classroom instruction given by non-native speakers has led to a corresponding decrease in student satisfaction with the quality of instruction, due mainly to the reported difficulty following non-native classroom presentation (Ostrom, 1997, as cited in Aufderhaar, 2004). A survey by Shaw (1985, as cited in Aufderhaar, 2004 ) revealed that having an instructor with foreign-accented speech is the highest of six areas of potential frustration for college students. Accordingly, previous studies conducted by Hinofotis and Bailey (1980) on non-native university teaching assistants revealed a threshold level of understandable pronunciation in English, below which the non-native speaker will not be able to communicate orally regardless of his or her level of control of English grammar and vocabulary. While some instructors and administrators within the field have historically dismissed these problems simply as a matter of not having enough exposure to the spoken target language (Moy, 1986), other well-meaning instructors attempting to deal with this need have often relied on minimal pair drills, repetition and articulatory instruction with poor results (MacDonald, Yule, Powers, 1994). According to Aufderhaar (2004), research in second language acquisition that suggested a departure from the traditional, bottom-up phonemic-based approach to teaching from a top-down orientation emphasizing suprasegmental or prosodic aspects such as rhythm, intonation, and duration revealed a need to increase the adult learners awareness of suprasegmental patterns of the target language at the discourse level. Chun (2002) advocates five principles for teaching intonation, including sensitization, explanation, imitation, practice activities, and communicative activities, and stresses the need for focused listening practice requiring the identification of suprasegmental features within a context of various authentic speech samples representing different speaker roles and relationships. 2.5. The sound system of English According to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) the unequal features between languages are the main source of errors. Lado (1957, as cited in Gass Selinker, 2008, p.96) claims that those structures that are different will be difficult because when transferred they will not function satisfactorily in the foreign language and will therefore have to be changed. In order to understand the role of the first language in the phonological acquisition of the second language, emphasis has been given to the studies that have focused on the differences between English and Persian phonological systems. As Celce-Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwin (1996) state: all languages are unique in terms of their consonant and vowel systems. In linguistics, these distinctive characteristics have been divided into segmental and suprasegmental features. The segmental features of a language relate to consonants and vowels, whereas suprasegmental aspects of a language are involved with word stress, intonation, and rhythm (p. 35). 2.5.1 English Consonants and Vowels Standard American English includes 24 consonants and 22 vowels and diphthongs; however, a study performed on American English asserted that there are similarities among consonants that permits us to classify them into groups; the classification can be done according to various criteria (Olive, Greenwood, Coleman, 1993, p. 22). They suggested that consonants could be classified based on voice, place, and manner of articulation; therefore, according to their common characteristics, which include their location inside the mouth, they can be grouped together (Olive, Greenwood, Coleman, ibid, p. 22). Table 2.1 presents the English consonants. Table 2.1. English Consonants p pour 0 thorough r writer b ball e this m man t tool s sack n none d door z Zip ņ¹ sing k key h ham I lab g gear r shawl J rude ʆ uh 3 garage w word f fish tʃ match W what v vast d3 jelly j you The most common vowels in English have been classified in accordance with how the tongue shapes them, and while the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via closure or obstruction in the vocal tract, vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flow of air (Yule, 2006, p. 38). Therefore, vowels can be classified based on the movement of the tongue, lips, and jaw. The vowels of English have been characterized as low, mid, or high, which describe the height of the tongue, whereas features such as front, central, or back refer to the position of the tongue inside the mouth (Barry, 2008, p. 21). Table 2.2. English Simple Vowels i deed ÊÅ   could É ª sit Ɇ bought Ɇº set a pot à ¦ bad ÊŒ but u push Ç  above 2.6. The Pronunciation Errors of Persian Speakers and the Negative Transfer of Learned L1 Habits into English Major (2001) addressed the issues in L2 phonology and how L1 phonological features can be transferred to the L2 when the sound pattern and word stress of the L2 differs from the L1. A foreign or nonnative accent can be detected more easily in a formal and longer conversation because in short conversation the speaker can produce words or sounds that are similar to the L2 in terms of segmental and suprasegmental features of language. Therefore, then overall impression concerning native speakers from whether or not and to what degree a person sounds native or nonnative is called global foreign accent (Major, 2000, p. 19). The measurement of global foreign accent is essential as it indicates at what stage of language development pronunciation is acquired. Moreover, Nation and Newton (2009) stated that the goal of pronunciation instruction is to increase the intelligibility of second language speakers although factors such as age, L1, perspectives, and attitudes of the learner can affect the learning of second language phonological system. There is clear evidence that there is a relationship between the age at which a language is learned and the degree of foreign accent (Patkowski, 1990, as cited in Nation Newton, 2009, p. 78). However, pronunciation has been identified as one of the important aspects of second language acquisition as it plays a crucial role in spoken conversational interactions and intelligibility. Although some studies indicated that it is impossible for adult learners to acquire native-like pronunciation, Boudaoud and Cardosos (2009) study suggested that learners proficiency level in English could affect their pronunciation. They compared the phonological features of Persian with four languages: Spanish, Japanese, Portuguese, and Arabic and asserted that these languages prevented their speakers from producing the /s/ consonant when learning English. The study focused on four research questions related to the production of /s/ consonant by Persian speakers and the factors that affect the acquisition of English as a second language. The findings indicated that /st/ and /sn/ were more difficult to produce than /sl/ and suggested that error production decreased as the proficiency level increased. Furthermore, Paribakht (2005) examined the relationship between first language (L1; Persian) lexicalization of the concepts represented by the second language (L2; English) target words and learners inferencing behavior while reading English texts (p. 701). This study emphasized the pronunciation errors that English majors produce in Iran when they read English texts. The study asserted that students errors in reading stemmed from their lack of knowledge in English vocabulary rather than the inability to produce the English sound system. The research questions examined whether lexicalization helped students identify the meaning of unfamiliar words. The findings also showed that students relied on their L1 when they were not provided with the synonym of an unfamiliar word. Sadeghi (2009) focused on collocational differences between the L1 and L2 and [suggested] implications for EFL learners and teachers (p.100). This study addressed the errors that Iranian EFL students make when they learn English, and it stated that these errors stemmed from the differences between Persian and English. The study compared Persian and English collocations and focused on the transfer of L1 habits into L2. The aim of the study was to find out whether students made the same errors based on their proficiency level in the English language. Lower level students tend to transfer L1 habits into L2 more frequently as a result of their lack of knowledge in the target language. However, transferring Persian vowels and diphthongs into English pronunciation can also be observed by advanced learners of English. Research related to the difference between phonological systems in English and Persian provide a general overview of the difficulties ESL students may encounter when teachers focus on pronunciation, intonation, and word stress. 2.6.1. Common consonant errors of Iranian EFL learners Persian speakers tend to place a vowel after each consonant; therefore, the following errors can be predicted when Persians pronounce English words: Bread, script, and scramble are pronounced as [bɆºÃƒâ€°Ã‚ ¹Ãƒâ€°Ã¢â‚¬ ºd], [ɆºskiÉ ¹ipt], and [ɆºskɆºÃƒâ€°Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ ¦mbɆºl]. Furthermore, according to the contrastive analysis of English and Persian conducted by Yarmohammadi (1969, 1996) and Wilson and Wilson (2001), the following negative transfer of learned L1 habits into English can be expected from Persian speakers of English. 1. Stop consonants such as /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, k/, /g/ are articulated with a stronger puff of air. /k/, /p/, /g/ and /t/ become aspirated when they are placed in the post coda position. Words such as bank, tap, king, and rest are pronounced as [bà ¦nkÊ °], [tà ¦pÊ °], [kÉ ªngÊ °], and [È ·Ãƒâ€°Ã¢â‚¬ ºstÊ °]. 2. Fricatives such as /v/, /ÃŽÂ ¸/, /ÃÆ' °/, and /s/ are substituted and articulated for other consonants such as /w/, /t/ and /s/, /z/ and /d/, /Ɇºs/ (no initial consonant cluster). West, three, father, and school are pronounced as [vɆºstÊ °], [sɆºÃƒË†Ã‚ ·i] or [tɆºÃƒË†Ã‚ ·i], [fÃŽÂ ±dɆºÃƒË†Ã‚ ·], and [Ɇºskul]. 3. Nasal consonant /ņ¹/ is articulated as /n/ and /g/. Therefore, sing is pronounced as [sÉ ªngÊ °]. /m/ and /n/ are also articulated with a stronger puff of air and they may sound like /Ɇºm/ and /Ɇºn/. 4. Lateral liquid consonant /l/ can be pronounced with a stronger puff of air /Ɇºl/ when it is placed at the end of a word such as tell. 5. The retroflex liquid /È ·/ is trilled and it is produced with the vibration of the tongue. 6. The glide consonant /w/ is replaced by /v/ since /w/ does not exist in Persian consonants. Therefore, flower is articulated as [fɆºlavɆºÃƒâ€°Ã‚ ¹]. 2.6.2. Common vowel errors of Iranian EFL learners According to the contrastive analysis of English and Persian conducted by Yarmohammadi (1969, 1996) and Wilson and Wilson (2001), the following negative transfer of learned L1 habits into English can be expected from Persian speakers of English: 1. /Ɇº/ and /à ¦/ can substitute for one another; therefore, [bà ¦t] is articulated as [bɆºt]. 2. /ÊŒ/ replaces /ÃŽÂ ±/. [lÊŒk] is articulated as [lÃŽÂ ±k]. 3. /ÊÅ  / replaces /u/. [ful] is pronounced as [fÊÅ  l]. 4. /É ª/ replaces /i/. [bit] is articulated as [bÉ ªt]. 5. /j/ replaces /i/ if placed in initial position. [twin] is articulated as [tujin]. 2.7. The Importance of suprasegmentals and stress in L2 acquisition 2.7.1 The importance of suprasegmentals Pronunciation is always a difficult step in learning a second or foreign language, especially for adults. Learners may have acquired perfect reading and writing skills while still being unable to communicate functionally in L2. Problems in pronunciation can be traced to segmental as well as suprasegmental difficulties. Although most previous research has been conducted on the segmental level, recent studies show that suprasegmentals may play a more important role than segmentals in the acquisition of a second language phonological system (Anderson, Johnson Koehler 1992, Derwing, Munro Wiebe, 1998). Anderson, et al (1992) investigated the nonnative pronunciation deviance at three different levels: syllable structure, segmental structure and prosody. The correlation between the actual deviance at the three levels and nonnative speakers performance on the Speaking Proficiency English Assessment Kit (SPEAK) Test was calculated. It was shown that while all three areas had a significant influence on pronunciation ratings, the effects of the prosodic variable were the strongest. In Derwing, Munro, and Wiebes (1998) study, native speakers were invited to evaluate the final results of three types of instruction, i.e. segmental accuracy, general speaking habits and prosodic factors, and no specific pronunciation instruction, after a 12-week pronunciation course. Treated in three different ways, three groups of ESL learner reading sentences and narratives at the beginning and end of the course were recorded. Both the first and second groups, who received pronunciation instruction, showed significant improvement in sentence reading. However, only the second group, where prosodic factors were included in the instruction, showed improvement in accentedness and fluency in the narratives. In Johanssons (1978, as cited in Wang, 2009) study of Swedish-accented English speech, segmental and non-segmental errors were compared in terms of accentedness scores. Native English judges were presented with two kinds of production, those with native English intonation but segmental errors on the one hand, and those with nonnative intonation (Swedish-accented) but no segmental errors on the other. Higher scores were assigned to productions with native-like suprasegmental characteristics but poor segmentals. In a more recent study, Munro (1995, as cited in Wang, 2009) used low-pass filtered English speech produced by Mandarin speakers for accent judgment. Untrained native English listeners were invited to rate the speech samples. It was found that non-segmental factors such as speaking rate, pitch patterns and reduction contribute to the detected foreign accent in Mandarin speakers production and that their foreign accent can be detected based solely on suprasegmental information. In addition, some recent studies have, therefore, focused on stress production with nonce words of English. For example, Pater (1997, as cited in Altmann, 2006) investigated the stress placement patterns for English nonce words by both English native speakers and French learners of English. While this study varied syllable weight within words, it used a rather small set of items. The native English speakers exhibited a stress placement pattern that was basically identical to the Latin stress rule (i.e., stre